Paul Goble
Staunton,
June 25 – Aleksey Levinson, a Levada Center sociologist who had been measuring
anti-Semitism in Russia since the late 1980s, says that passive anti-Semitism
is almost universal in Russia but the active kind is almost unheard of and is
unlikely to emerge unless prominent leaders start to promote it.
In the
new Neprikosnovenny zapas, he points
out that many have been surprised by and some have even challenged the findings
of sociologists and pollsters like himself that there is very little
anti-Semitism in Russia compared to what many, given the country’s history,
might expect (magazines.russ.ru/nz/2018/2/neokonchatelnoe-reshenie-odnogo-voprosa.html).
The main reasons for that, Levinson
suggests, are that active anti-Semitism, support for actions intended to
exclude or destroy the Jewish ethos, “has achieved these goals” – there are few
Jews left and most are assimilated -- and state anti-Semitism “as a policy of
excluding Jewry not as an ethnic but as a social category has also achieved its
goals.”
At the same time, however, there
exists and is reproduced a residual but passive anti-Semitism, a set of
attitudes that is not directed against the existing Jewish population” and
won’t be until and unless some senior government official mobilizes people on
that basis at some point in the future.
Many people in Russia and abroad are
surprised by the findings of sociologists like himself, Levinson says, and in
some cases actively dispute them. And consequently, he says, he wants to “make
one more attempt to offer an explanation” of the findings and of why they are
in fact accurate.
To do so, he says,
it is necessary to discuss the history of the question. “Jews in the Russian Empire were one of the peoples/ethnoses
which had the majority of the attributes of such – their own language and
alphabet, faith, way of life and compact settlement and a specific niche in the
economy.
They had various kinds of relations
with other ethoses ranging “from friendship and cooperation to hostility and
striving to their exclusion of elimination as an ethnos and from that social
space which other ethnoses supposed were theirs, the sociologist continues.
“The pogroms of the end of the 19th
and beginning of the 20th centuries led to the mass emigration of
Jews from the Russian empire; pogroms during the civil war led to their mass
physical extermination … [and] the Nazi ‘final solution of “the Jewish
question” on the occupied territories of the USSR completed this solution.” The
Jews left were no longer an ethnos.
“In addition to
these factors, there were others which stimulated the rapid assimilation of
part of the Jews to the dominant Russian culture with a corresponding rejection
of Jewish culture. By the end of the 1940s, it was possible to speak about the
specific non-ethnic but social category who were called and often called
themselves or considered themselves Jews, but there was no basis, in my
opinion,” Levinson says, to speak about the existence of a Jewish ethnos on the
territory of the USSR.”
There is also a history of state
anti-Semitism. The Russian Empire excluded Jews from most walks of life and
actively persecuted them, supporting the pogroms. “In the Soviet Union at the end of the 1940s
and beginning of the 1950s, this line was continued but in the lightly masked
forms of the struggle with ‘rootless cosmopolitanism.’”
Until the end of the USSR, Levinson
says, there were unpublished but very real limitations on the admission of Jews
to higher educational institutions, their ability to work in state institutions
and the ruling party and even their participation in public life. That led to further emigration when that
became possible.
But “with the formation of Russia as
a new state,” he says, “these practices as government policies ceased to exist:
they could be initiated by one or another set of officials in the spheres of
their authority but they remained in this sense private manifestations” rather
than government policy.
As a result of all this, “the number
of those who consider themselves Jews and register as such in censuses and
polls has been reduced to 150,000 … Assimilationist processes continue; however
along with them in the Jewish milieu have appeared successful tendencies of
restoring communal and religious ‘Jewish life.’”
Research shows, he continues, “that
under Russian conditions, the positions of any boss and above all the highest,
on ‘the Jewish question’ have decisive importance for anti-Semitic manifestations
in the masses.” If the higher ups give the signal, then passive anti-Semitism
will become active in the form of “’administrative’ anti-Semitism.”
“That anti-Semitism as in the past
has as its goal the driving our and exclusion of Jews from this or that social
space (from ‘our’ house, enterprise, city or state),” Levinson says. The existence of that possibility is one of
the reasons many resist accepting poll findings showing that anti-Semitism as a
body of attitudes is relatively passive in Russia today.
Those attitudes, he continues,
include “negative and long established ethnic stereotypes” and beliefs in “’a
world Jewish government” and a conspiracy of Jews behind the highest offices in
Russia and other countries. But such
ideas, while “very important, lack at present an aggressive potential.”
At the same time, Levinson says,
studies show that Russians view Jews as having qualities that they themselves
lack and that they believe “Jews live ‘here’ only because things are good for
them. If they become bad, then they will leave,” a notion that reflects the
idea that Jews are not that patriotic. And of course, there are the ubiquitous
Jewish jokes.
Many observers suggest that there
are too few Jews in Russia now to spark anti-Semitism, Levinson says, but that
argument isn’t convincing. There are many countries which display “anti-Semitism
without Jews.” And in Russia, most people say that they know at least some
Jews.
And it is no explanation for the low
level of active anti-Semitism to say that anti-North Caucasus attitudes have
displaced the space anti-Semitism occupies traditionally, Levinson continues.
But hatred of the North Caucasians and Central Asians “cannot explain he lack
of anti-Semitic manifestations” in Russia.”
According to the sociologist, there
are two reasons for the low levels of active anti-Semitism in Russia. On the
one hand, most Jews have so completely assimilated to Russian culture that many
Russians have trouble seeing them as distinct as anti-Semitic attitudes
typically require.
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